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THE EUROPEAN UNION IN THE 21ST CENTURY
PERSPECTIVES FROM THE LISBON TREATY
EDITED BY STEFANO MICOSSI AND GIAN LUIGI TOSATO
INTRODUCTION BY SABINO CASSESE
CENTRE FOR EUROPEAN POLICY STUDIES BRUSSELS
The Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS) is an independent policy research institute based in Brussels. Its mission is to produce sound analytical research leading to constructive solutions to the challenges facing Europe today. CEPS Paperbacks present analysis and views by leading experts on important questions in the arena of European public policy, written in a style aimed at an informed but generalist readership. The views expressed in this report are those of the authors writing in a personal capacity and do not necessarily reflect those of CEPS or any other institution with which they are associated.
Cover: Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant, 1872 Musée Marmottan, Paris
ISBN 978-92-9079-929-0 © Copyright 2009, Centre for European Policy Studies.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise – without the prior permission of the Centre for European Policy Studies.
Centre for European Policy Studies Place du Congrès 1, B-1000 Brussels Tel: 32 (0) 2 229.39.11 Fax: 32 (0) 2 219.41.51
e-mail: [email protected] internet: http://www.ceps.eu
CONTENTS
Preface............................................................................................................................ i
1. Introduction: Im Zweifel für Europa Sabino Cassese .......................................................................................................1 1. The European Union: Reasons for success ..................................................1 2. The crisis and its paradoxes...........................................................................2 3. A realistic agenda............................................................................................4
Part I. Economics and Consensus
2. Partisan Protectionism: Political Consensus, the Euro and Europe’s Response to the Global Crisis Carlo Bastasin .......................................................................................................7 1. A crisis in consensus.......................................................................................8 2. A crisis in politics ..........................................................................................13 3. The euro as trigger – two examples: Germany and Italy ........................16 4. Protection versus protectionism .................................................................19 5. Welfare ...........................................................................................................23 6. Beyond partisan protectionism ...................................................................28 References .............................................................................................................30
3. A More Social EU: Issues of where and how Maurizio Ferrera & Stefano Sacchi...................................................................31 1. The need for a more social European Union.............................................31 2. How to build a more social EU ...................................................................34 3. Supplementing the internal market with social rights ............................36 4. Less rhetoric, more forward-looking initiatives .......................................43 References .............................................................................................................46
4. Economic Policy Coordination and Failures in Europe to counter Recession Fiorella Kostoris..................................................................................................48 Introduction..........................................................................................................48 1. When is coordination appropriate?............................................................49 2. Economic policy coordination under pressure .........................................52
3. A case study of the Stability and Growth Pace ........................................ 54 4. Effects of the financial crisis........................................................................ 61 5. Conclusions ................................................................................................... 62 References............................................................................................................. 65 Annex.................................................................................................................... 67
5. Market Integration and Competition Policy: The Challenges Ahead Ginevra Bruzzone & Luigi Prosperetti ............................................................ 72 1. Introduction................................................................................................... 72 2. Becoming closer to citizens ......................................................................... 76 3. Stable principles and integration of structural policies........................... 80 4. The proper degree of harmonisation ......................................................... 81 4.1 Supranational regulation .................................................................. 81 4.2 Common rules for products ............................................................. 84 4.3 Commercial relations between business and consumers ............. 86 4.4 Common rules for services ............................................................... 86 4.5 ...including network industries ........................................................ 87 5. Coordinated implementation ..................................................................... 90 6. Conclusions ................................................................................................... 95 References............................................................................................................. 96
6. Energy and European Institutions Valeria Termini.................................................................................................... 98 1. Background ................................................................................................... 98 2. European Institutions: A necessary but insufficient precondition. From Euratom to the Lisbon Treaties ........................................................ 99 3. European strategy and domestic policies: Goals, conflicts and proposals.............................................................................................. 105 4. Europe’s relationship with the rest of the world: Energy security and climate change..................................................................................... 111 5. Conclusions ................................................................................................. 116 References........................................................................................................... 118
Part II. The International Projection
7. Europe on the International Scene: A Union of necessity after a Union of choice? Cesare Merlini ....................................................................................................120 1. The international context ...........................................................................123 2. The Union’s Internal Context ....................................................................128 3. Suggested guidelines for a non-marginal common foreign policy......133 4. The instruments for the EU to achieve a high-profile foreign policy ..137 References ...........................................................................................................140
8. The Enlargement of the European Union Rocco A. Cangelosi & Ferdinando Salleo ......................................................142 1. European enlargement and vision............................................................142 2. Recent admissions and new candidates ..................................................144 3. The Western Balkans ..................................................................................147 4. Turkey...........................................................................................................149 5. The borders of Europe................................................................................152 6. Europe’s identity.........................................................................................154 7. Enlargement in 2009 ...................................................................................157 8. After the Lisbon Treaty ..............................................................................159 References ...........................................................................................................161
9. European defence or defence of Europe? Alessandro Pansa ..............................................................................................162 1. The institutions: A past of great hopes, a future with no illusions ......162 2. The industry: Oligopoly, foreign policy and internationalisation .......168 3. Europe: Cooperation, inefficiency and nationalism...............................172 4. Governments, institutions and investors: A changing role ..................175 5. Industrial structures, control systems and the equity market ..............177 References ...........................................................................................................181
10. Europe and Global Economic Governance after the Crisis Pier Carlo Padoan .............................................................................................182 1. The breakdown of Bretton Woods II and beyond ..................................182 2. Keeping markets open in investment and trade.....................................186 3. Europe and the United States as ‘global regulators’? ............................188 4. Macroeconomic governance......................................................................192 5. Conclusions..................................................................................................197 References ...........................................................................................................198
Part III. The Institutional Framework
11. From a Community based on the Rule of Law to the European Union as a Community of Rights Mario P. Chiti.................................................................................................... 201 1. A community based on the rule of law ................................................... 201 2. Issues posited in the original 1957 EEC Treaty ...................................... 203 3. Developments subsequent to the 1992 EU Treaty ................................. 205 4. Roles played by the Council of Europe and the European Convention on Human Rights ....................................................................................... 207 5. The 2007 Treaty and the recent Treaty of Lisbon................................... 208 6. The Constitutional Court in Italy and Europe’s international obligations ................................................................................................... 209 7. Pending issues ............................................................................................ 211 8. Protecting rights – The EU’s basic remit ................................................. 211 References........................................................................................................... 212
12. Democracy in the European Union Stefano Micossi ................................................................................................. 214 1. The need for democratic legitimisation................................................... 217 2. Control and democratic legitimisation mechanisms ............................. 221 2.1 Elections and referendums ............................................................. 222 2.2 The role of national parliaments .................................................... 223 2.3 Control and democratic legitimisation at the Union level ......... 225 2.4 Popular legitimisation and constitutionalism .............................. 228 3. Legitimisation through substantive Community action....................... 230 3.1 Opening new areas for decision-making in the Union’s policies ............................................................................................... 231 4. Conclusions ................................................................................................. 232 References........................................................................................................... 233
13. Trail-Blazing Developments in Justice and Home Affairs Giacinto della Cananea ................................................................................... 236 1. The problem: Losing control over territory and individuals ............... 237 2. The European rescue of police powers?.................................................. 238 3. An area of freedom, security and justice................................................. 240 4. From the Laeken Declaration to the Lisbon Treaty ............................... 243 5. Issues of efficiency and safeguards.......................................................... 245
6. Future Prospects: ‘Choral’ cooperation and trail-blazing initiative.....249 7. Implications for checks and balances.......................................................251 8. Implications for the Union’s Foreign Policy............................................253 References ...........................................................................................................254
14. The Role of Parliaments in the Democratic Life of the Union Andrea Manzella ...............................................................................................257 1. The democratic principles of the Union and national parliaments within the European parliamentary system............................................257 2. The political nature of the subsidiarity and proportionality principles......................................................................................................262 3. The irresistible political expansion of proportionality control .............264 4. The improper interaction of quorums......................................................266 5. Conclusions: Early warning for the early warning ................................270 References ...........................................................................................................270
15. The Shape of post-Lisbon Europe Gian Luigi Tosato..............................................................................................271 1. The new Treaty’s structure ........................................................................271 2. A simplified and re-organised system .....................................................272 3. The ‘constitutional’ issue ...........................................................................275 4. Institutions and decision-making efficiency ...........................................276 5. Three candidates for the role of Mr (or Ms) Europe ..............................278 6. The market: Between competition and general interest ........................279 7. A foreign policy for the Union? ................................................................280 8. Two conflicting concepts ...........................................................................282 9. A look into the future .................................................................................283 References ...........................................................................................................285
About the Authors...................................................................................................286
PREFACE
Eventually, after fifteen years of agonizing negotiations among the member states and at times dogged resistance by segments of European society, the European Union has reached a form of constitutional settlement with the Treaty of Lisbon.
The new Treaty brings important changes to the European construction, including a significant expansion of common policies decided by the Community method, a stable President for the European Council, a strengthened framework for external policies, more transparent and effective decision-making and strict safeguards of subsidiarity.
Even in the wake of the new Treaty, however, the Union remains an entity in flux, in search of its destiny. Further institutional progress is by no means excluded, but it will have to be achieved explicitly rather than brought about by stealth. The presence among the member states and in the European Parliament of political forces staunchly opposed to further deepening of the Union makes the prospect of increased use of enhanced cooperation more likely.
Ultimately, the fate of the Union depends on its ability to respond to the needs of its member states and its citizens in providing external and internal security and economic prosperity in a global context of mounting economic and political instability, where the centre of gravity of world governance and strategic decisions is likely to continue to shift away from Europe and towards the Pacific and emerging economies.
Against this background, the essays in this volume analyse changing equilibria in common policies, institutional settings and legitimisation mechanisms of the European Union, which are being brought about by the new Treaty, and sketch out possible scenarios for the 21st century. The essays are organised in three sections devoted in turn to economics and consensus, international projection of the Union and the new institutional framework.
| i
ii | PREFACE
The contributors to this collection are all members of EuropEos, a multi-disciplinary group of jurists, economists, political scientists and journalists who first came together in 2002 to contribute to the deliberations of the European Convention and have developed into a permanent forum for the discussion of European institutional issues.
The views expressed in the essays in this volume are not always concordant, but they stem from a common commitment to the European construction. The title of the introductory essay, Im zweifel für Europa, is there for a reason.
Stefano Micossi and Gian Luigi Tosato
PERSPECTIVES FROM THE LISBON TREATY
EDITED BY STEFANO MICOSSI AND GIAN LUIGI TOSATO
INTRODUCTION BY SABINO CASSESE
CENTRE FOR EUROPEAN POLICY STUDIES BRUSSELS
The Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS) is an independent policy research institute based in Brussels. Its mission is to produce sound analytical research leading to constructive solutions to the challenges facing Europe today. CEPS Paperbacks present analysis and views by leading experts on important questions in the arena of European public policy, written in a style aimed at an informed but generalist readership. The views expressed in this report are those of the authors writing in a personal capacity and do not necessarily reflect those of CEPS or any other institution with which they are associated.
Cover: Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant, 1872 Musée Marmottan, Paris
ISBN 978-92-9079-929-0 © Copyright 2009, Centre for European Policy Studies.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise – without the prior permission of the Centre for European Policy Studies.
Centre for European Policy Studies Place du Congrès 1, B-1000 Brussels Tel: 32 (0) 2 229.39.11 Fax: 32 (0) 2 219.41.51
e-mail: [email protected] internet: http://www.ceps.eu
CONTENTS
Preface............................................................................................................................ i
1. Introduction: Im Zweifel für Europa Sabino Cassese .......................................................................................................1 1. The European Union: Reasons for success ..................................................1 2. The crisis and its paradoxes...........................................................................2 3. A realistic agenda............................................................................................4
Part I. Economics and Consensus
2. Partisan Protectionism: Political Consensus, the Euro and Europe’s Response to the Global Crisis Carlo Bastasin .......................................................................................................7 1. A crisis in consensus.......................................................................................8 2. A crisis in politics ..........................................................................................13 3. The euro as trigger – two examples: Germany and Italy ........................16 4. Protection versus protectionism .................................................................19 5. Welfare ...........................................................................................................23 6. Beyond partisan protectionism ...................................................................28 References .............................................................................................................30
3. A More Social EU: Issues of where and how Maurizio Ferrera & Stefano Sacchi...................................................................31 1. The need for a more social European Union.............................................31 2. How to build a more social EU ...................................................................34 3. Supplementing the internal market with social rights ............................36 4. Less rhetoric, more forward-looking initiatives .......................................43 References .............................................................................................................46
4. Economic Policy Coordination and Failures in Europe to counter Recession Fiorella Kostoris..................................................................................................48 Introduction..........................................................................................................48 1. When is coordination appropriate?............................................................49 2. Economic policy coordination under pressure .........................................52
3. A case study of the Stability and Growth Pace ........................................ 54 4. Effects of the financial crisis........................................................................ 61 5. Conclusions ................................................................................................... 62 References............................................................................................................. 65 Annex.................................................................................................................... 67
5. Market Integration and Competition Policy: The Challenges Ahead Ginevra Bruzzone & Luigi Prosperetti ............................................................ 72 1. Introduction................................................................................................... 72 2. Becoming closer to citizens ......................................................................... 76 3. Stable principles and integration of structural policies........................... 80 4. The proper degree of harmonisation ......................................................... 81 4.1 Supranational regulation .................................................................. 81 4.2 Common rules for products ............................................................. 84 4.3 Commercial relations between business and consumers ............. 86 4.4 Common rules for services ............................................................... 86 4.5 ...including network industries ........................................................ 87 5. Coordinated implementation ..................................................................... 90 6. Conclusions ................................................................................................... 95 References............................................................................................................. 96
6. Energy and European Institutions Valeria Termini.................................................................................................... 98 1. Background ................................................................................................... 98 2. European Institutions: A necessary but insufficient precondition. From Euratom to the Lisbon Treaties ........................................................ 99 3. European strategy and domestic policies: Goals, conflicts and proposals.............................................................................................. 105 4. Europe’s relationship with the rest of the world: Energy security and climate change..................................................................................... 111 5. Conclusions ................................................................................................. 116 References........................................................................................................... 118
Part II. The International Projection
7. Europe on the International Scene: A Union of necessity after a Union of choice? Cesare Merlini ....................................................................................................120 1. The international context ...........................................................................123 2. The Union’s Internal Context ....................................................................128 3. Suggested guidelines for a non-marginal common foreign policy......133 4. The instruments for the EU to achieve a high-profile foreign policy ..137 References ...........................................................................................................140
8. The Enlargement of the European Union Rocco A. Cangelosi & Ferdinando Salleo ......................................................142 1. European enlargement and vision............................................................142 2. Recent admissions and new candidates ..................................................144 3. The Western Balkans ..................................................................................147 4. Turkey...........................................................................................................149 5. The borders of Europe................................................................................152 6. Europe’s identity.........................................................................................154 7. Enlargement in 2009 ...................................................................................157 8. After the Lisbon Treaty ..............................................................................159 References ...........................................................................................................161
9. European defence or defence of Europe? Alessandro Pansa ..............................................................................................162 1. The institutions: A past of great hopes, a future with no illusions ......162 2. The industry: Oligopoly, foreign policy and internationalisation .......168 3. Europe: Cooperation, inefficiency and nationalism...............................172 4. Governments, institutions and investors: A changing role ..................175 5. Industrial structures, control systems and the equity market ..............177 References ...........................................................................................................181
10. Europe and Global Economic Governance after the Crisis Pier Carlo Padoan .............................................................................................182 1. The breakdown of Bretton Woods II and beyond ..................................182 2. Keeping markets open in investment and trade.....................................186 3. Europe and the United States as ‘global regulators’? ............................188 4. Macroeconomic governance......................................................................192 5. Conclusions..................................................................................................197 References ...........................................................................................................198
Part III. The Institutional Framework
11. From a Community based on the Rule of Law to the European Union as a Community of Rights Mario P. Chiti.................................................................................................... 201 1. A community based on the rule of law ................................................... 201 2. Issues posited in the original 1957 EEC Treaty ...................................... 203 3. Developments subsequent to the 1992 EU Treaty ................................. 205 4. Roles played by the Council of Europe and the European Convention on Human Rights ....................................................................................... 207 5. The 2007 Treaty and the recent Treaty of Lisbon................................... 208 6. The Constitutional Court in Italy and Europe’s international obligations ................................................................................................... 209 7. Pending issues ............................................................................................ 211 8. Protecting rights – The EU’s basic remit ................................................. 211 References........................................................................................................... 212
12. Democracy in the European Union Stefano Micossi ................................................................................................. 214 1. The need for democratic legitimisation................................................... 217 2. Control and democratic legitimisation mechanisms ............................. 221 2.1 Elections and referendums ............................................................. 222 2.2 The role of national parliaments .................................................... 223 2.3 Control and democratic legitimisation at the Union level ......... 225 2.4 Popular legitimisation and constitutionalism .............................. 228 3. Legitimisation through substantive Community action....................... 230 3.1 Opening new areas for decision-making in the Union’s policies ............................................................................................... 231 4. Conclusions ................................................................................................. 232 References........................................................................................................... 233
13. Trail-Blazing Developments in Justice and Home Affairs Giacinto della Cananea ................................................................................... 236 1. The problem: Losing control over territory and individuals ............... 237 2. The European rescue of police powers?.................................................. 238 3. An area of freedom, security and justice................................................. 240 4. From the Laeken Declaration to the Lisbon Treaty ............................... 243 5. Issues of efficiency and safeguards.......................................................... 245
6. Future Prospects: ‘Choral’ cooperation and trail-blazing initiative.....249 7. Implications for checks and balances.......................................................251 8. Implications for the Union’s Foreign Policy............................................253 References ...........................................................................................................254
14. The Role of Parliaments in the Democratic Life of the Union Andrea Manzella ...............................................................................................257 1. The democratic principles of the Union and national parliaments within the European parliamentary system............................................257 2. The political nature of the subsidiarity and proportionality principles......................................................................................................262 3. The irresistible political expansion of proportionality control .............264 4. The improper interaction of quorums......................................................266 5. Conclusions: Early warning for the early warning ................................270 References ...........................................................................................................270
15. The Shape of post-Lisbon Europe Gian Luigi Tosato..............................................................................................271 1. The new Treaty’s structure ........................................................................271 2. A simplified and re-organised system .....................................................272 3. The ‘constitutional’ issue ...........................................................................275 4. Institutions and decision-making efficiency ...........................................276 5. Three candidates for the role of Mr (or Ms) Europe ..............................278 6. The market: Between competition and general interest ........................279 7. A foreign policy for the Union? ................................................................280 8. Two conflicting concepts ...........................................................................282 9. A look into the future .................................................................................283 References ...........................................................................................................285
About the Authors...................................................................................................286
PREFACE
Eventually, after fifteen years of agonizing negotiations among the member states and at times dogged resistance by segments of European society, the European Union has reached a form of constitutional settlement with the Treaty of Lisbon.
The new Treaty brings important changes to the European construction, including a significant expansion of common policies decided by the Community method, a stable President for the European Council, a strengthened framework for external policies, more transparent and effective decision-making and strict safeguards of subsidiarity.
Even in the wake of the new Treaty, however, the Union remains an entity in flux, in search of its destiny. Further institutional progress is by no means excluded, but it will have to be achieved explicitly rather than brought about by stealth. The presence among the member states and in the European Parliament of political forces staunchly opposed to further deepening of the Union makes the prospect of increased use of enhanced cooperation more likely.
Ultimately, the fate of the Union depends on its ability to respond to the needs of its member states and its citizens in providing external and internal security and economic prosperity in a global context of mounting economic and political instability, where the centre of gravity of world governance and strategic decisions is likely to continue to shift away from Europe and towards the Pacific and emerging economies.
Against this background, the essays in this volume analyse changing equilibria in common policies, institutional settings and legitimisation mechanisms of the European Union, which are being brought about by the new Treaty, and sketch out possible scenarios for the 21st century. The essays are organised in three sections devoted in turn to economics and consensus, international projection of the Union and the new institutional framework.
| i
ii | PREFACE
The contributors to this collection are all members of EuropEos, a multi-disciplinary group of jurists, economists, political scientists and journalists who first came together in 2002 to contribute to the deliberations of the European Convention and have developed into a permanent forum for the discussion of European institutional issues.
The views expressed in the essays in this volume are not always concordant, but they stem from a common commitment to the European construction. The title of the introductory essay, Im zweifel für Europa, is there for a reason.
Stefano Micossi and Gian Luigi Tosato