Trends in Higher Education Series, Education Pays 2019
Transcript Of Trends in Higher Education Series, Education Pays 2019
Trends in Higher Education Series
Education Pays 2019
THE BENEFITS OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY Jennifer Ma, Matea Pender, and Meredith Welch
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Jennifer Ma Senior Policy Research Scientist, College Board
Matea Pender Policy Research Scientist, College Board
Meredith Welch Doctoral Student, Policy Analysis & Management, Cornell University
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Anthony LaRosa and Edward Lu provided critical support for this publication. We also benefited from comments from Dean Bentley, Jessica Howell, Michael Hurwitz, and Melanie Storey. Sandy Alexander provided expert graphic design work. The publication would not have been possible without the cooperation and support of many individuals at College Board, including Connie Betterton, Auditi Chakravarty, Jennifer Hwang, Jennifer Ip, Karen Lanning, George Lalis, Robert Majoros, Jose Rios, and Jennifer San Miguel.
The tables supporting all of the graphs in this report, a PDF version of the report, and a PowerPoint file containing individual slides for all of the graphs are available on our website research.collegeboard.org/research.
Please feel free to cite or reproduce the data in this report for noncommercial purposes with proper attribution.
For inquiries or requesting hard copies, please contact: [email protected]
© 2019 College Board. College Board, Advanced Placement Program, SAT, and the acorn logo are registered trademarks of the College Board. All other products and services may be trademarks of their respective owners.
Trends in Higher Education Series
Education Pays 2019
THE BENEFITS OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY Jennifer Ma, Matea Pender, and Meredith Welch With an Introduction by Jessica Howell
Highlights
As in previous editions, Education Pays 2019: The Benefits of Higher Education for Individuals and Society documents differences in the earnings and employment patterns of U.S. adults with different levels of education. It also compares health-related behaviors, reliance on public assistance programs, civic participation, and indicators of the well-being of the next generation.
In addition to reporting median earnings by education level, this year’s report presents data on variation in earnings by different characteristics such as gender, race/ethnicity, occupation, college major, and sector. Education Pays 2019 also examines the persistent disparities across different socioeconomic groups in college participation and completion.
We present correlations between various outcomes and educational attainment. It is worth noting that not all of the observed differences in outcomes are attributable to education. However, reliable statistical analyses support the significant role of postsecondary education in generating the benefits reported and we cite causal evidence when possible.
PARTICIPATION AND SUCCESS IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Although college enrollment rates continue to rise, gaps in enrollment rates persist across demographic groups.
In 1998, 59% of black and 55% of Hispanic recent high school
graduates enrolled in college within one year of high school graduation, compared with 68% of white students. In 2018, enrollment rates were 60%, 66%, and 70% for black, Hispanic, and white students, respectively. (Figure 1.1A)
Since 1989, the enrollment rate for recent female high school
graduates has consistently exceeded that of their male counterparts. Annual enrollment rates fluctuate, but the average gender gap increased from 4 percentage points between 1988 and 1998 to 5 percentage points the following decade and 7 percentage points between 2008 and 2018. (Figure 1.2A)
Among students with similar high school math test scores,
college enrollment rates are higher for those from higher socioeconomic status (SES) quintiles than for those from lower SES quintiles. (Figure 1.3A)
While overall educational attainment is increasing, college completion rates and attainment patterns differ considerably across demographic groups.
The percentage of young adults in the U.S. between the ages
of 25 and 34 with at least a bachelor’s degree grew from 11% in 1960 to 24% in 1980 and 1990. In 2018, 39% of adults in this age group had earned at least a bachelor’s degree. (Figure 1.5A)
In 1998, the percentage of female adults age 25 to 29 who had
completed at least a bachelor’s degree was 17%, 11%, and 34% for blacks, Hispanics, and whites, respectively. By 2018, these percentages had increased to 25%, 22%, and 47%. (Figure 1.6)
In 1998, the percentage of male adults age 25 to 29 who had
completed at least a bachelor’s degree was 13%, 10%, and 31% for blacks, Hispanics, and whites, respectively. By 2018, these percentages had increased to 20%, 17%, and 39%. (Figure 1.6)
Within each sector, students with higher family incomes were
more likely to complete a degree than their lower-income peers with similar high school GPAs. (Figure 1.4)
Participation in postsecondary education differs considerably across states.
The percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds enrolled in college in
2017 ranged from 29% in Alaska and 31% in Nevada to 56% in the District of Columbia and 57% in Rhode Island. (Figure 1.7)
In 2017, the percentage of adults age 25 and older with at least a
bachelor’s degree ranged from 20% in West Virginia and 22% in Mississippi to 44% in Massachusetts and 57% in the District of Columbia. (Figure 1.7)
THE BENEFITS OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND VARIATION IN OUTCOMES
Individuals with higher levels of education earn more, pay more taxes, and are more likely than others to be employed.
In 2018, the median earnings of bachelor’s degree recipients
with no advanced degree working full time were $24,900 higher than those of high school graduates. Bachelor’s degree recipients paid an estimated $7,100 more in taxes and took home $17,800 more in after-tax income than high school graduates. (Figure 2.1)
The typical 4-year college graduate who enrolls at age 18 and
graduates in 4 years can expect to earn enough relative to a high school graduate by age 33 to compensate for being out of the labor force for 4 years and for borrowing the full tuition and fees and books and supplies without any grant aid. (Figure 2.2A)
In 2018, among full-time year-round workers between the ages
of 25 and 34, median earnings among women with at least a bachelor’s degree were $52,500, compared with $29,800 for those with a high school diploma. Median earnings among men with at least a bachelor’s degree were $63,300, compared with $39,800 for those with a high school diploma. (Figure 2.6)
In 2018, among adults between the ages of 25 and 64, 69% of
high school graduates, 73% of those with some college but no degree, 78% of those with associate degrees, and 83% of those with 4-year college degree were employed. (Figure 2.11)
The unemployment rate for individuals age 25 and older with at
least a bachelor’s degree has consistently been about half of the unemployment rate for high school graduates. (Figure 2.12A)
In 2018, the unemployment rate for 25- to 34-year-olds with at
least a bachelor’s degree was 2.2%, compared with 5.7% among high school graduates. (Figure 2.12B)
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Median earnings increase with level of education, but there is considerable variation in earnings at each level of educational attainment.
The percentage of full-time year-round workers age 35 to 44
earning $100,000 or more in 2018 ranged from 2% of those without a high school diploma and 5% of high school graduates to 28% of those whose highest attainment was a bachelor’s degree and 43% of advanced degree holders. (Figure 2.3)
Between 2016 and 2018, median earnings of individuals age 25 to
34 working full time year-round with a bachelor’s degree ranged from $42,100 among black females and $43,900 among Hispanic females to $72,300 among Asian males. The earnings premium for a bachelor’s degree relative to a high school diploma was the highest among Asian males and females. (Figure 2.4)
In 2018, median earnings of female 4-year college graduates
working full time year-round were $56,700. However, 25% of them earned less than $40,500, and another 25% earned more than $81,600. (Figure 2.5)
In 2018, median earnings of male 4-year college graduates
working full time year-round were $75,200. However, 25% of them earned less than $50,400, and 25% earned more than $110,000. (Figure 2.5)
Between 2013 and 2017, among occupations that employ large
numbers of both high school graduates and college graduates, the median earnings of those with only a high school diploma ranged from $31,400 (in 2017 dollars) for retail salespersons to $60,100 for general and operations managers. The median earnings of those with at least a bachelor’s degree ranged from $41,800 (in 2017 dollars) for administrative assistants to $89,500 for first-line supervisors of nonretail workers. (Figure 2.8)
In 2016 and 2017, median earnings for early career bachelor’s
degree recipients ranged from $32,100 a year for early childhood education majors to $62,000 for computer science majors. For those in mid-career, median earnings ranged from $41,000 to $95,000. (Figure 2.9)
Institutional median earnings vary by sector. From 2014 to 2015,
the typical 4-year college’s median earnings of 2003-04 and 2004-05 federal student aid recipients ranged from $34,600 at for-profit institutions to $42,800 at private nonprofit institutions and $42,950 at public institutions. (Figure 2.10A)
College education increases the chance that adults will move up the socioeconomic ladder and reduces the chance that adults will rely on public assistance.
Among those who attended the most selective colleges, 68% of
children from the lowest parent income quintile were in the top two income quintiles as adults, compared with 72% of children from the middle-income quintile and 76% from the highest income quintile. (Figure 2.15A)
Children from lower-income backgrounds were less likely to attend
more selective institutions. Children whose parents were in the top 1% of the income distribution were nearly 50 times more likely to attend the most selective institutions as those whose parents were in the bottom 20%. (Figure 2.15B)
In 2018, 4% of bachelor’s degree recipients age 25 and older
lived in poverty, compared with 13% of high school graduates. (Figure 2.16A)
In 2018, 7% of individuals age 25 and older with associate
degrees and 9% of those with some college but no degree lived in households that benefited from the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), compared with 12% of those with only a high school diploma. (Figure 2.17)
Having a college degree is associated with a healthier lifestyle, potentially reducing health care costs. Adults with higher levels of education are more active citizens than others and are more involved in their children’s activities.
In 2018, 69% of 25- to 34-year-olds with at least a bachelor’s
degree and 47% of high school graduates reported exercising vigorously at least once a week. (Figure 2.19A)
Children of parents with higher levels of educational attainment
are more likely than other children to engage in a variety of educational activities with their family members. (Figures 2.20B and 2.21A)
Among adults age 25 and older, 19% of those with a high school
diploma volunteered in 2017, compared with 42% of those with a bachelor’s degree and 52% of those with an advanced degree. (Figure 2.22A)
Voting rates are higher among individuals with higher levels
of education. In the 2016 presidential election, 73% of 25- to 44-year-old U.S. citizens with at least a bachelor’s degree voted, compared with 41% of high school graduates in the same age group. (Figure 2.23A)
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Contents
4 Highlights
8 Introduction
Part 1: The Distribution of Benefits: Who Participates and Succeeds in Higher Education
College Enrollment
10 College Enrollment by Race/ Ethnicity
FIGURE 1.1A FIGURE 1.1B
College Enrollment Rates of Recent High School Graduates by Race/Ethnicity over Time College Enrollment Rates of 18- to 24-Year-Olds by Race/Ethnicity over Time
11 College Enrollment by Gender FIGURE 1.2A
College Enrollment Rates of Recent High School Graduates by Gender over Time
FIGURE 1.2B
College Enrollment Rates of 18- to 24-Year-Olds by Gender over Time
12 College Enrollment by Math Score and Socioeconomic Status
FIGURE 1.3A FIGURE 1.3B
College Enrollment by Math Quintile and Parents’ Socioeconomic Status Sector of First Postsecondary Institution by Math Quintile and Parents’ Socioeconomic Status
College Completion and Educational Attainment
13 College Completion Rates
FIGURE 1.4
Six-Year Completion Rates by Sector, High School GPA, and Family Income
14 Educational Attainment
FIGURE 1.5A
Educational Attainment of Individuals Age 25 to 34 over Time
FIGURE 1.5B
Educational Attainment of Individuals by Age Group, 2018
15 Educational Attainment by Race/Ethnicity and Gender
FIGURE 1.6
Percentage of 25- to 29-Year-Olds Who Have Completed High School or a Bachelor’s Degree, by Race/Ethnicity and Gender over Time
16 College Enrollment and Attainment by State
FIGURE 1.7
College Enrollment Rates of 18- to 24-Year-Olds and Educational Attainment by State
Part 2: Individual and Societal Benefits of Higher Education
Earnings
17 Education, Earnings, and Tax Payments
FIGURE 2.1
Median Earnings and Tax Payments of Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 25 and Older, by Education Level, 2018
18 Earnings Premium Relative to Price of Education
FIGURE 2.2A
Estimated Cumulative Full-Time Earnings Net of Loan Repayment for Tuition and Fees and Books and Supplies, by Education Level
19 Earnings Premium Relative to Price of Education: Alternative Scenarios
FIGURE 2.2B
Age at Which Cumulative Earnings of College Graduates Exceed Those of High School Graduates
20 Variation in Earnings Within Levels of Education
FIGURE 2.3
Earnings Distribution of Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 35 to 44, by Education Level, 2018
21 Earnings by Race/Ethnicity, Gender and Education Level
FIGURE 2.4
Median Earnings of Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 25 to 34, by Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Education Level, 2016–2018
22 Earnings by Gender and Education Level
FIGURE 2.5
Median, 25th Percentile, and 75th Percentile Earnings of Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 25 and Older, by Gender and Education Level, 2018
23 Earnings over Time by Gender FIGURE 2.6 and Education Level
Median Earnings of Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 25 to 34 over Time, by Gender and Education Level
24 Earnings Paths
FIGURE 2.7
Median Earnings of Full-Time Year-Round Workers, by Age and Education Level, 2013–2017
25 Earnings by Occupation and Education Level
FIGURE 2.8
Median Earnings of Full-Time Workers Age 25 and Older with a High School Diploma and Those with at Least a Bachelor’s Degree, by Occupation, 2013–2017
26 Earnings by College Major
FIGURE 2.9
Median Earnings of Early Career and Mid-Career College Graduates Working Full Time, by College Major, 2016−2017
27 Variation in Earnings by Institutional Sector
FIGURE 2.10A
Distribution of 2014 and 2015 Institutional Median Earnings of Federal Student Aid Recipients in 2003-04 and 2004-05, by Sector
FIGURE 2.10B
Average 2014 and 2015 Earnings of Dependent Federal Student Aid Recipients in 2003-04 and 2004-05, by Sector and Graduation Rate
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Contents—Continued
Other Economic Benefits 28 Employment
FIGURE 2.11
29 Unemployment 30 Unemployment
FIGURE 2.12A FIGURE 2.12B FIGURE 2.12C
31 Retirement Plans
FIGURE 2.13
32 Health Insurance
FIGURE 2.14A
FIGURE 2.14B
33 Social Mobility
FIGURE 2.15A
34 Poverty
FIGURE 2.15B FIGURE 2.16A
FIGURE 2.16B
35 Public Assistance Programs FIGURE 2.17
Health Benefits 36 Smoking
37 Exercise
FIGURE 2.18A FIGURE 2.18B FIGURE 2.19A FIGURE 2.19B
Other Individual and Societal Benefits
38 Parents and Children: Preschool-Age Children
FIGURE 2.20A
FIGURE 2.20B
39 Parents and Children: School-Age Children
FIGURE 2.21A FIGURE 2.21B
40 Civic Involvement
FIGURE 2.22A
FIGURE 2.22B
41 Voting 42 References
FIGURE 2.23A FIGURE 2.23B
Civilian Population Age 25 to 64: Percentage Employed, Unemployed, and Not in Labor Force, 2008, 2013, and 2018 Unemployment Rates of Individuals Age 25 and Older, by Education Level, 1998 to 2018
Unemployment Rates of Individuals Age 25 and Older, by Age and Education Level, 2018
Unemployment Rates of Individuals Age 25 and Older, by Race/Ethnicity and Education Level, 2018 Employer-Provided Retirement Plan Coverage Among Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 25 and Older, by Sector and Education Level, 2018 Employer-Provided Health Insurance Coverage Among Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 25 and Older, by Education Level, 1998, 2008, and 2018 Employer-Provided Health Insurance Coverage Among Part-Time Workers Age 25 and Older, by Education Level, 1998, 2008, and 2018 Percentage of Children in Top Income Quintiles as Adults, by Parents’ Income and College Tier: Children Born in 1980 to 1982 Distribution of College Enrollment by Parents’ Income Quintile, Children Born in 1980 to 1982
Percentage of Individuals Age 25 and Older Living in Households in Poverty, by Household Type and Education Level, 2018 Living Arrangements of Children Under 18 Years of Age, by Poverty Status and Highest Education of Either Parent, 2018 Percentage of Individuals Age 25 and Older Living in Households That Participated in Various Public Assistance Programs, by Education Level, 2018
Smoking Rates Among Individuals Age 25 and Older over Time, by Education Level
Smoking Rates Among Individuals Age 25 and Older, by Gender and Education Level, 2017
Exercise Rates Among Individuals Age 25 and Older, by Age and Education Level, 2018
Percentage Distribution of Leisure-Time Aerobic Activity Levels Among Individuals Age 25 and Older, by Education Level, 2018
Percentage of 3- to 5-Year-Olds Enrolled in Preschool Programs, by Parents’ Education Level, 2017
Percentage of 3- to 5-Year-Olds Participating in Activities with a Family Member, by Parents’ Education Level, 2016 Percentage of Kindergartners Through Fifth Graders Participating in Activities with a Family Member in the Past Month, by Parents’ Education Level, 2016
Percentage of Elementary and Secondary School Children Whose Parents Were Involved in School Activities, by Parents’ Education Level, 2016 Percentage of Individuals Age 25 and Older Who Volunteered, by Gender and Education Level, 2017 Percentage of Individuals Age 25 and Older Who Volunteered, by Age and Education Level, 2017 Voting Rates Among U.S. Citizens, by Age and Education Level, 2016 and 2018
Voting Rates Among U.S. Citizens During Presidential Elections over Time, by Education Level
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Introduction
Jessica Howell Vice President, Research, College Board
Education Pays: The Benefits of Higher Education for Individuals and Society documents the substantial individual payoff from investments in higher education, the variation in outcomes experienced by different individuals, and the benefits we all enjoy from a more educated populace. Since 2004, College Board has been publishing updates to this report every three years. Education Pays rounds out the Trends in Higher Education series that includes Trends in Student Aid and Trends in College Pricing. These reports provide a foundation for evaluating public policies to increase educational opportunities.
This report combines publicly available government statistics and academic research to paint a detailed and integrated picture of the benefits of higher education and the distribution of those benefits across society. Many graphs in this report compare the experiences of people with different education levels and illustrate straightforward correlations between education and various outcomes. When possible, we cite causal evidence of the direct impact of higher education on both financial outcomes and behavior patterns.
COLLEGE ACCESS AND SUCCESS
Education Pays provides information about college enrollment patterns, completion rates, and educational attainment levels across demographic groups in the United States. The nation has made progress increasing the share of young adults who invest in postsecondary education. The percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds who enroll in college increased from 25% in 1978 to 41% in 2018 (Figure 1.1B). The growth in college enrollment over time translates into 67% of adults age 25 to 34 in the U.S. having at least some college experience in 2018, an increase from 57% in 2000 and from 46% in 1980 (Figure 1.5A).
Although the share of all young adults age 25 to 29 who had a bachelor’s degree or higher rose to 36% in 2018, this share ranged from 19% for Hispanics and 23% for blacks to 43% for whites and 66% for Asians (Page 15). Gaps in college enrollment and completion rates can be partially explained by differences in academic preparation in K–12. Yet, even among students with similar academic achievement levels in high school, students from lowersocioeconomic-status families enroll and graduate at lower rates than those from higher-socioeconomic-status families (Figures 1.3A and 1.4). Moreover, there are stark differences by student socioeconomic status in types of postsecondary institutions students with similar academic preparation choose, which likely contributes to uneven college completion rates (Figure 1.3B).
THE PAYOFF OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR INDIVIDUALS
Most college students report improved job prospects and financial security as a primary reason for college attendance. The data are clear: adults with postsecondary credentials are, in fact, more likely to be employed and to earn more than individuals who did not attend college. In 2018, 83% of adults with bachelor’s degrees or higher were employed, compared with 69% of adults with a high school diploma (Figure 2.11). In 2018, median earnings of full-time workers with associate and bachelor’s degrees were 24% and 61% higher, respectively, than that of their peers with only a high school diploma. The earnings premium for workers with postbaccalaureate credentials is even higher (Figure 2.1). Though not all the earnings premia cited above are attributable to differences in educational attainment, a growing body of research clearly identifies postsecondary education as causally impacting earnings (Zimmerman, 2014; Hoekstra, 2009).
The benefits of a college education extend beyond financial gains. More educated citizens have greater access to health care and retirement plans. They are more likely to engage in healthy behaviors, be active and engaged citizens, and be in a position to provide better opportunities for their children.
Because the price of college continues to rise over time, even substantial benefits from investing in education must be compared with costs in order to assess whether college is a worthwhile investment. Figures 2.2A and 2.2B indicate that a 4-year college graduate who enrolls at age 18 with median earnings can expect to earn enough by age 33 to compensate for being out of the labor force for four years and for borrowing the full tuition and fees and books and supplies without any grant aid. An associate degree is both faster and less expensive to acquire but yields smaller earnings, on average, than a bachelor’s degree, so it is unsurprising that the break-even age of an associate degree is similar (age 31). Over the course of a lifetime, and accounting for the costs of obtaining a degree, individuals with a bachelor’s degree earn about $400,000 more than individuals with a high school degree. The financial benefits of an associate degree are roughly half as large.
The average payoff to college is considerable, but not all students reap the same financial rewards. Several analyses in this report focus on the variation in the outcomes of higher education across and within demographic groups, types of credentials, and institutional sectors. The distribution of earnings in Figure 2.3 tells a more nuanced story about the mid-career earnings of full-time workers with the same level of education. While 28% of employed adults with a bachelor’s degree working full time earn more than
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$100,000, 17% earn less than $40,000. This disparity in earnings outcomes reflects, among other underlying factors, geographic differences in wages, variation in types of colleges attended, and differences in fields of study and occupations (Figures 2.8 through 2.10B). Although these nuances are important to our understanding of the circumstances under which educational investments pay off, the overall patterns are clear—more education is associated with increased opportunities for the vast majority of students.
This report also reveals earnings differentials among individuals with similar levels of education by race and gender. Underrepresented minorities continue to earn less than their white and Asian counterparts and females continue to earn less than their male counterparts (Figures 2.4 through 2.6). Though issues of equity exist in the workplace, postsecondary education remains a catalyst for social mobility. Figure 2.15A shows that a college education can be a powerful equalizer. When students attend similar postsecondary institutions, the percentage of students who end up in the top two income quintiles as adults is nearly the same for students from the lowest-income-quintile families as it is for those from top-incomequintile families. Although Figure 2.15B illustrates that affluent students are still considerably more likely to attend selective colleges than their less affluent peers, expanding access to selective colleges remains a promising avenue to economic mobility.
THE PUBLIC BENEFITS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Society at large also gains from increases in postsecondary attainment. A more productive economy generates a higher standard of living. We can all enjoy the benefits of having a more well-educated populace. Increases in wages generate higher tax payments at the local, state, and federal levels. In 2018, four-year college graduates paid, on average, 82% more in taxes than high school graduates and, for those with a professional degree, average tax payments were more than three times as high as those of high school graduates. Spending on social support programs such as unemployment compensation, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and Medicaid is much lower for individuals with higher levels of education. Figure 2.17 shows that SNAP participation among individuals with a high school diploma is four times as high as that among those with a bachelor’s degree or higher.
Education is associated with healthful behaviors and civic engagement. Over time, rates of smoking have dropped the most precipitously among college-educated adults (Figure 2.18A). Rates of reported exercise rise with educational attainment for individuals of all ages (Figure 2.19A). Adults with greater educational attainment are more likely to volunteer and to vote. In the 2016 presidential election, 73% of young adults age 25 to 44 with at least a bachelor’s degree voted, compared with 41% of their peers with a high school diploma (Figure 2.23A).
The data in Education Pays provide a strong argument for increasing access to and support for successful postsecondary pathways. Research suggests that increased public commitment to this priority through public subsidies for higher education institutions is the most promising approach to increasing degree completion and realizing greater private and public benefits (Deming & Walters, 2017; Avery, Howell, Pender, & Sacerdote, 2019).
IS COLLEGE WORTH IT?
A postsecondary education opens the door to many opportunities. As the price of college continues to rise, more students and families are asking if college is worth it. Media headlines highlight stories of college students saddled with debt without gainful employment. Although these stories do exist, they are far from typical. As illustrated in this report, college is a worthwhile investment that pays off over time for most students. Of course, students and families face crucial choices—which institution, which field of study, and how to finance it all—that factor into their eventual answer to the question, “Was college worth it?” Additional data and transparency about the costs and benefits of postsecondary education are needed to inform these choices.
Education Pays shows the variation in earnings by institutional sector based on the college-level earnings data from the Department of Education’s College Scorecard (Figures 2.10A and 2.10B). In 2019, the Department of Education expanded upon the college-level earnings data it began releasing in 2015. It provided program-level data for every college, including median debt data and median first-year earnings data. This is the first time such detailed data about labor market outcomes of students from specific majors and colleges have been made available at the national level. The earnings data include information for associate and bachelor’s degrees, certificate programs, and graduate degrees—a substantial step toward transparency around the monetary benefits of specific postsecondary investments. Continued progress in providing data on the benefits and costs of postsecondary investments at the institution and program levels will give students, families, institutions, and policymakers the information they need to quantitatively evaluate which postsecondary opportunities best serve individual and public educational goals.
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College Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity
In 1998, 59% of black and 55% of Hispanic recent high school graduates enrolled in college within one year of high school graduation, compared with 68% of white students. In 2018, enrollment rates were 60%, 66%, and 70% for black, Hispanic, and white students, respectively.
FIGURE 1.1A Postsecondary Enrollment Rates of Recent High School Graduates by Race/Ethnicity, 1978 to 2018
80%
60% 50%
48% 47%
40%
Recent High School Graduates
Black
Hispanic
White
68% 59% 55%
70% 66% 60%
Enrollment Rate
20%
0% 1978
1983
1988
1993
1998
2003
2008
2013
2018
Enrollment rates of young adults between the
ages of 18 and 24 are lower than enrollment rates of all recent high school graduates.
In 1998, 29% of black and 21% of Hispanic young
adults between the ages of 18 and 24 were enrolled in college, compared with 40% of white young adults. In 2018, enrollment rates were 37% for black and Hispanic and 42% for white young adults.
ALSO IMPORTANT:
College enrollment rates are higher for Asians than
for other racial/ethnic groups. In 2018, 83% of Asians enrolled in college within a year of graduating from high school. (NCES, Digest of Education Statistics, 2019, Table 302.20; calculations by the authors)
Differences in high school graduation rates account
for some of the college enrollment gaps graphed in Figure 1.1B. In 2016-17, 89% of white, 78% of black, and 80% of Hispanic public high school students graduated from high school in four years. (NCES, Digest of Education Statistics, 2018, Table 219.47)
FIGURE 1.1B Postsecondary Enrollment Rates of All 18- to 24-Year-Olds by Race/Ethnicity, 1978 to 2018
All 18- to 24-Year-Olds
Black
Hispanic
White
80%
60%
Enrollment Rate
40%
27% 21% 20% 17%
40% 29%
21%
42% 37% 37%
0% 1978
1983
1988
1993
1998
2003
2008
2013
2018
NOTES: “Recent high school graduates” include those who graduated from high school in the previous 12 months. “All 18- to 24-year-olds” also include those who have not completed high school. “Postsecondary enrollment rates” are three-year moving averages and include both undergraduate and graduate students. Some 18- to 24-year-olds have completed college and are no longer enrolled. Because of small sample sizes for Hispanics and blacks, annual fluctuations in enrollment rates may not be significant.
SOURCES: National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Digest of Education Statistics, 2019, Tables 302.20 and 302.60; calculations by the authors.
10 EDUCATION PAYS 2019
Part 1: Distribution of Benefits
Education Pays 2019
THE BENEFITS OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY Jennifer Ma, Matea Pender, and Meredith Welch
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Jennifer Ma Senior Policy Research Scientist, College Board
Matea Pender Policy Research Scientist, College Board
Meredith Welch Doctoral Student, Policy Analysis & Management, Cornell University
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Anthony LaRosa and Edward Lu provided critical support for this publication. We also benefited from comments from Dean Bentley, Jessica Howell, Michael Hurwitz, and Melanie Storey. Sandy Alexander provided expert graphic design work. The publication would not have been possible without the cooperation and support of many individuals at College Board, including Connie Betterton, Auditi Chakravarty, Jennifer Hwang, Jennifer Ip, Karen Lanning, George Lalis, Robert Majoros, Jose Rios, and Jennifer San Miguel.
The tables supporting all of the graphs in this report, a PDF version of the report, and a PowerPoint file containing individual slides for all of the graphs are available on our website research.collegeboard.org/research.
Please feel free to cite or reproduce the data in this report for noncommercial purposes with proper attribution.
For inquiries or requesting hard copies, please contact: [email protected]
© 2019 College Board. College Board, Advanced Placement Program, SAT, and the acorn logo are registered trademarks of the College Board. All other products and services may be trademarks of their respective owners.
Trends in Higher Education Series
Education Pays 2019
THE BENEFITS OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY Jennifer Ma, Matea Pender, and Meredith Welch With an Introduction by Jessica Howell
Highlights
As in previous editions, Education Pays 2019: The Benefits of Higher Education for Individuals and Society documents differences in the earnings and employment patterns of U.S. adults with different levels of education. It also compares health-related behaviors, reliance on public assistance programs, civic participation, and indicators of the well-being of the next generation.
In addition to reporting median earnings by education level, this year’s report presents data on variation in earnings by different characteristics such as gender, race/ethnicity, occupation, college major, and sector. Education Pays 2019 also examines the persistent disparities across different socioeconomic groups in college participation and completion.
We present correlations between various outcomes and educational attainment. It is worth noting that not all of the observed differences in outcomes are attributable to education. However, reliable statistical analyses support the significant role of postsecondary education in generating the benefits reported and we cite causal evidence when possible.
PARTICIPATION AND SUCCESS IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Although college enrollment rates continue to rise, gaps in enrollment rates persist across demographic groups.
In 1998, 59% of black and 55% of Hispanic recent high school
graduates enrolled in college within one year of high school graduation, compared with 68% of white students. In 2018, enrollment rates were 60%, 66%, and 70% for black, Hispanic, and white students, respectively. (Figure 1.1A)
Since 1989, the enrollment rate for recent female high school
graduates has consistently exceeded that of their male counterparts. Annual enrollment rates fluctuate, but the average gender gap increased from 4 percentage points between 1988 and 1998 to 5 percentage points the following decade and 7 percentage points between 2008 and 2018. (Figure 1.2A)
Among students with similar high school math test scores,
college enrollment rates are higher for those from higher socioeconomic status (SES) quintiles than for those from lower SES quintiles. (Figure 1.3A)
While overall educational attainment is increasing, college completion rates and attainment patterns differ considerably across demographic groups.
The percentage of young adults in the U.S. between the ages
of 25 and 34 with at least a bachelor’s degree grew from 11% in 1960 to 24% in 1980 and 1990. In 2018, 39% of adults in this age group had earned at least a bachelor’s degree. (Figure 1.5A)
In 1998, the percentage of female adults age 25 to 29 who had
completed at least a bachelor’s degree was 17%, 11%, and 34% for blacks, Hispanics, and whites, respectively. By 2018, these percentages had increased to 25%, 22%, and 47%. (Figure 1.6)
In 1998, the percentage of male adults age 25 to 29 who had
completed at least a bachelor’s degree was 13%, 10%, and 31% for blacks, Hispanics, and whites, respectively. By 2018, these percentages had increased to 20%, 17%, and 39%. (Figure 1.6)
Within each sector, students with higher family incomes were
more likely to complete a degree than their lower-income peers with similar high school GPAs. (Figure 1.4)
Participation in postsecondary education differs considerably across states.
The percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds enrolled in college in
2017 ranged from 29% in Alaska and 31% in Nevada to 56% in the District of Columbia and 57% in Rhode Island. (Figure 1.7)
In 2017, the percentage of adults age 25 and older with at least a
bachelor’s degree ranged from 20% in West Virginia and 22% in Mississippi to 44% in Massachusetts and 57% in the District of Columbia. (Figure 1.7)
THE BENEFITS OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND VARIATION IN OUTCOMES
Individuals with higher levels of education earn more, pay more taxes, and are more likely than others to be employed.
In 2018, the median earnings of bachelor’s degree recipients
with no advanced degree working full time were $24,900 higher than those of high school graduates. Bachelor’s degree recipients paid an estimated $7,100 more in taxes and took home $17,800 more in after-tax income than high school graduates. (Figure 2.1)
The typical 4-year college graduate who enrolls at age 18 and
graduates in 4 years can expect to earn enough relative to a high school graduate by age 33 to compensate for being out of the labor force for 4 years and for borrowing the full tuition and fees and books and supplies without any grant aid. (Figure 2.2A)
In 2018, among full-time year-round workers between the ages
of 25 and 34, median earnings among women with at least a bachelor’s degree were $52,500, compared with $29,800 for those with a high school diploma. Median earnings among men with at least a bachelor’s degree were $63,300, compared with $39,800 for those with a high school diploma. (Figure 2.6)
In 2018, among adults between the ages of 25 and 64, 69% of
high school graduates, 73% of those with some college but no degree, 78% of those with associate degrees, and 83% of those with 4-year college degree were employed. (Figure 2.11)
The unemployment rate for individuals age 25 and older with at
least a bachelor’s degree has consistently been about half of the unemployment rate for high school graduates. (Figure 2.12A)
In 2018, the unemployment rate for 25- to 34-year-olds with at
least a bachelor’s degree was 2.2%, compared with 5.7% among high school graduates. (Figure 2.12B)
4
Median earnings increase with level of education, but there is considerable variation in earnings at each level of educational attainment.
The percentage of full-time year-round workers age 35 to 44
earning $100,000 or more in 2018 ranged from 2% of those without a high school diploma and 5% of high school graduates to 28% of those whose highest attainment was a bachelor’s degree and 43% of advanced degree holders. (Figure 2.3)
Between 2016 and 2018, median earnings of individuals age 25 to
34 working full time year-round with a bachelor’s degree ranged from $42,100 among black females and $43,900 among Hispanic females to $72,300 among Asian males. The earnings premium for a bachelor’s degree relative to a high school diploma was the highest among Asian males and females. (Figure 2.4)
In 2018, median earnings of female 4-year college graduates
working full time year-round were $56,700. However, 25% of them earned less than $40,500, and another 25% earned more than $81,600. (Figure 2.5)
In 2018, median earnings of male 4-year college graduates
working full time year-round were $75,200. However, 25% of them earned less than $50,400, and 25% earned more than $110,000. (Figure 2.5)
Between 2013 and 2017, among occupations that employ large
numbers of both high school graduates and college graduates, the median earnings of those with only a high school diploma ranged from $31,400 (in 2017 dollars) for retail salespersons to $60,100 for general and operations managers. The median earnings of those with at least a bachelor’s degree ranged from $41,800 (in 2017 dollars) for administrative assistants to $89,500 for first-line supervisors of nonretail workers. (Figure 2.8)
In 2016 and 2017, median earnings for early career bachelor’s
degree recipients ranged from $32,100 a year for early childhood education majors to $62,000 for computer science majors. For those in mid-career, median earnings ranged from $41,000 to $95,000. (Figure 2.9)
Institutional median earnings vary by sector. From 2014 to 2015,
the typical 4-year college’s median earnings of 2003-04 and 2004-05 federal student aid recipients ranged from $34,600 at for-profit institutions to $42,800 at private nonprofit institutions and $42,950 at public institutions. (Figure 2.10A)
College education increases the chance that adults will move up the socioeconomic ladder and reduces the chance that adults will rely on public assistance.
Among those who attended the most selective colleges, 68% of
children from the lowest parent income quintile were in the top two income quintiles as adults, compared with 72% of children from the middle-income quintile and 76% from the highest income quintile. (Figure 2.15A)
Children from lower-income backgrounds were less likely to attend
more selective institutions. Children whose parents were in the top 1% of the income distribution were nearly 50 times more likely to attend the most selective institutions as those whose parents were in the bottom 20%. (Figure 2.15B)
In 2018, 4% of bachelor’s degree recipients age 25 and older
lived in poverty, compared with 13% of high school graduates. (Figure 2.16A)
In 2018, 7% of individuals age 25 and older with associate
degrees and 9% of those with some college but no degree lived in households that benefited from the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), compared with 12% of those with only a high school diploma. (Figure 2.17)
Having a college degree is associated with a healthier lifestyle, potentially reducing health care costs. Adults with higher levels of education are more active citizens than others and are more involved in their children’s activities.
In 2018, 69% of 25- to 34-year-olds with at least a bachelor’s
degree and 47% of high school graduates reported exercising vigorously at least once a week. (Figure 2.19A)
Children of parents with higher levels of educational attainment
are more likely than other children to engage in a variety of educational activities with their family members. (Figures 2.20B and 2.21A)
Among adults age 25 and older, 19% of those with a high school
diploma volunteered in 2017, compared with 42% of those with a bachelor’s degree and 52% of those with an advanced degree. (Figure 2.22A)
Voting rates are higher among individuals with higher levels
of education. In the 2016 presidential election, 73% of 25- to 44-year-old U.S. citizens with at least a bachelor’s degree voted, compared with 41% of high school graduates in the same age group. (Figure 2.23A)
5
Contents
4 Highlights
8 Introduction
Part 1: The Distribution of Benefits: Who Participates and Succeeds in Higher Education
College Enrollment
10 College Enrollment by Race/ Ethnicity
FIGURE 1.1A FIGURE 1.1B
College Enrollment Rates of Recent High School Graduates by Race/Ethnicity over Time College Enrollment Rates of 18- to 24-Year-Olds by Race/Ethnicity over Time
11 College Enrollment by Gender FIGURE 1.2A
College Enrollment Rates of Recent High School Graduates by Gender over Time
FIGURE 1.2B
College Enrollment Rates of 18- to 24-Year-Olds by Gender over Time
12 College Enrollment by Math Score and Socioeconomic Status
FIGURE 1.3A FIGURE 1.3B
College Enrollment by Math Quintile and Parents’ Socioeconomic Status Sector of First Postsecondary Institution by Math Quintile and Parents’ Socioeconomic Status
College Completion and Educational Attainment
13 College Completion Rates
FIGURE 1.4
Six-Year Completion Rates by Sector, High School GPA, and Family Income
14 Educational Attainment
FIGURE 1.5A
Educational Attainment of Individuals Age 25 to 34 over Time
FIGURE 1.5B
Educational Attainment of Individuals by Age Group, 2018
15 Educational Attainment by Race/Ethnicity and Gender
FIGURE 1.6
Percentage of 25- to 29-Year-Olds Who Have Completed High School or a Bachelor’s Degree, by Race/Ethnicity and Gender over Time
16 College Enrollment and Attainment by State
FIGURE 1.7
College Enrollment Rates of 18- to 24-Year-Olds and Educational Attainment by State
Part 2: Individual and Societal Benefits of Higher Education
Earnings
17 Education, Earnings, and Tax Payments
FIGURE 2.1
Median Earnings and Tax Payments of Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 25 and Older, by Education Level, 2018
18 Earnings Premium Relative to Price of Education
FIGURE 2.2A
Estimated Cumulative Full-Time Earnings Net of Loan Repayment for Tuition and Fees and Books and Supplies, by Education Level
19 Earnings Premium Relative to Price of Education: Alternative Scenarios
FIGURE 2.2B
Age at Which Cumulative Earnings of College Graduates Exceed Those of High School Graduates
20 Variation in Earnings Within Levels of Education
FIGURE 2.3
Earnings Distribution of Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 35 to 44, by Education Level, 2018
21 Earnings by Race/Ethnicity, Gender and Education Level
FIGURE 2.4
Median Earnings of Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 25 to 34, by Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Education Level, 2016–2018
22 Earnings by Gender and Education Level
FIGURE 2.5
Median, 25th Percentile, and 75th Percentile Earnings of Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 25 and Older, by Gender and Education Level, 2018
23 Earnings over Time by Gender FIGURE 2.6 and Education Level
Median Earnings of Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 25 to 34 over Time, by Gender and Education Level
24 Earnings Paths
FIGURE 2.7
Median Earnings of Full-Time Year-Round Workers, by Age and Education Level, 2013–2017
25 Earnings by Occupation and Education Level
FIGURE 2.8
Median Earnings of Full-Time Workers Age 25 and Older with a High School Diploma and Those with at Least a Bachelor’s Degree, by Occupation, 2013–2017
26 Earnings by College Major
FIGURE 2.9
Median Earnings of Early Career and Mid-Career College Graduates Working Full Time, by College Major, 2016−2017
27 Variation in Earnings by Institutional Sector
FIGURE 2.10A
Distribution of 2014 and 2015 Institutional Median Earnings of Federal Student Aid Recipients in 2003-04 and 2004-05, by Sector
FIGURE 2.10B
Average 2014 and 2015 Earnings of Dependent Federal Student Aid Recipients in 2003-04 and 2004-05, by Sector and Graduation Rate
6
Contents—Continued
Other Economic Benefits 28 Employment
FIGURE 2.11
29 Unemployment 30 Unemployment
FIGURE 2.12A FIGURE 2.12B FIGURE 2.12C
31 Retirement Plans
FIGURE 2.13
32 Health Insurance
FIGURE 2.14A
FIGURE 2.14B
33 Social Mobility
FIGURE 2.15A
34 Poverty
FIGURE 2.15B FIGURE 2.16A
FIGURE 2.16B
35 Public Assistance Programs FIGURE 2.17
Health Benefits 36 Smoking
37 Exercise
FIGURE 2.18A FIGURE 2.18B FIGURE 2.19A FIGURE 2.19B
Other Individual and Societal Benefits
38 Parents and Children: Preschool-Age Children
FIGURE 2.20A
FIGURE 2.20B
39 Parents and Children: School-Age Children
FIGURE 2.21A FIGURE 2.21B
40 Civic Involvement
FIGURE 2.22A
FIGURE 2.22B
41 Voting 42 References
FIGURE 2.23A FIGURE 2.23B
Civilian Population Age 25 to 64: Percentage Employed, Unemployed, and Not in Labor Force, 2008, 2013, and 2018 Unemployment Rates of Individuals Age 25 and Older, by Education Level, 1998 to 2018
Unemployment Rates of Individuals Age 25 and Older, by Age and Education Level, 2018
Unemployment Rates of Individuals Age 25 and Older, by Race/Ethnicity and Education Level, 2018 Employer-Provided Retirement Plan Coverage Among Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 25 and Older, by Sector and Education Level, 2018 Employer-Provided Health Insurance Coverage Among Full-Time Year-Round Workers Age 25 and Older, by Education Level, 1998, 2008, and 2018 Employer-Provided Health Insurance Coverage Among Part-Time Workers Age 25 and Older, by Education Level, 1998, 2008, and 2018 Percentage of Children in Top Income Quintiles as Adults, by Parents’ Income and College Tier: Children Born in 1980 to 1982 Distribution of College Enrollment by Parents’ Income Quintile, Children Born in 1980 to 1982
Percentage of Individuals Age 25 and Older Living in Households in Poverty, by Household Type and Education Level, 2018 Living Arrangements of Children Under 18 Years of Age, by Poverty Status and Highest Education of Either Parent, 2018 Percentage of Individuals Age 25 and Older Living in Households That Participated in Various Public Assistance Programs, by Education Level, 2018
Smoking Rates Among Individuals Age 25 and Older over Time, by Education Level
Smoking Rates Among Individuals Age 25 and Older, by Gender and Education Level, 2017
Exercise Rates Among Individuals Age 25 and Older, by Age and Education Level, 2018
Percentage Distribution of Leisure-Time Aerobic Activity Levels Among Individuals Age 25 and Older, by Education Level, 2018
Percentage of 3- to 5-Year-Olds Enrolled in Preschool Programs, by Parents’ Education Level, 2017
Percentage of 3- to 5-Year-Olds Participating in Activities with a Family Member, by Parents’ Education Level, 2016 Percentage of Kindergartners Through Fifth Graders Participating in Activities with a Family Member in the Past Month, by Parents’ Education Level, 2016
Percentage of Elementary and Secondary School Children Whose Parents Were Involved in School Activities, by Parents’ Education Level, 2016 Percentage of Individuals Age 25 and Older Who Volunteered, by Gender and Education Level, 2017 Percentage of Individuals Age 25 and Older Who Volunteered, by Age and Education Level, 2017 Voting Rates Among U.S. Citizens, by Age and Education Level, 2016 and 2018
Voting Rates Among U.S. Citizens During Presidential Elections over Time, by Education Level
7
Introduction
Jessica Howell Vice President, Research, College Board
Education Pays: The Benefits of Higher Education for Individuals and Society documents the substantial individual payoff from investments in higher education, the variation in outcomes experienced by different individuals, and the benefits we all enjoy from a more educated populace. Since 2004, College Board has been publishing updates to this report every three years. Education Pays rounds out the Trends in Higher Education series that includes Trends in Student Aid and Trends in College Pricing. These reports provide a foundation for evaluating public policies to increase educational opportunities.
This report combines publicly available government statistics and academic research to paint a detailed and integrated picture of the benefits of higher education and the distribution of those benefits across society. Many graphs in this report compare the experiences of people with different education levels and illustrate straightforward correlations between education and various outcomes. When possible, we cite causal evidence of the direct impact of higher education on both financial outcomes and behavior patterns.
COLLEGE ACCESS AND SUCCESS
Education Pays provides information about college enrollment patterns, completion rates, and educational attainment levels across demographic groups in the United States. The nation has made progress increasing the share of young adults who invest in postsecondary education. The percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds who enroll in college increased from 25% in 1978 to 41% in 2018 (Figure 1.1B). The growth in college enrollment over time translates into 67% of adults age 25 to 34 in the U.S. having at least some college experience in 2018, an increase from 57% in 2000 and from 46% in 1980 (Figure 1.5A).
Although the share of all young adults age 25 to 29 who had a bachelor’s degree or higher rose to 36% in 2018, this share ranged from 19% for Hispanics and 23% for blacks to 43% for whites and 66% for Asians (Page 15). Gaps in college enrollment and completion rates can be partially explained by differences in academic preparation in K–12. Yet, even among students with similar academic achievement levels in high school, students from lowersocioeconomic-status families enroll and graduate at lower rates than those from higher-socioeconomic-status families (Figures 1.3A and 1.4). Moreover, there are stark differences by student socioeconomic status in types of postsecondary institutions students with similar academic preparation choose, which likely contributes to uneven college completion rates (Figure 1.3B).
THE PAYOFF OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR INDIVIDUALS
Most college students report improved job prospects and financial security as a primary reason for college attendance. The data are clear: adults with postsecondary credentials are, in fact, more likely to be employed and to earn more than individuals who did not attend college. In 2018, 83% of adults with bachelor’s degrees or higher were employed, compared with 69% of adults with a high school diploma (Figure 2.11). In 2018, median earnings of full-time workers with associate and bachelor’s degrees were 24% and 61% higher, respectively, than that of their peers with only a high school diploma. The earnings premium for workers with postbaccalaureate credentials is even higher (Figure 2.1). Though not all the earnings premia cited above are attributable to differences in educational attainment, a growing body of research clearly identifies postsecondary education as causally impacting earnings (Zimmerman, 2014; Hoekstra, 2009).
The benefits of a college education extend beyond financial gains. More educated citizens have greater access to health care and retirement plans. They are more likely to engage in healthy behaviors, be active and engaged citizens, and be in a position to provide better opportunities for their children.
Because the price of college continues to rise over time, even substantial benefits from investing in education must be compared with costs in order to assess whether college is a worthwhile investment. Figures 2.2A and 2.2B indicate that a 4-year college graduate who enrolls at age 18 with median earnings can expect to earn enough by age 33 to compensate for being out of the labor force for four years and for borrowing the full tuition and fees and books and supplies without any grant aid. An associate degree is both faster and less expensive to acquire but yields smaller earnings, on average, than a bachelor’s degree, so it is unsurprising that the break-even age of an associate degree is similar (age 31). Over the course of a lifetime, and accounting for the costs of obtaining a degree, individuals with a bachelor’s degree earn about $400,000 more than individuals with a high school degree. The financial benefits of an associate degree are roughly half as large.
The average payoff to college is considerable, but not all students reap the same financial rewards. Several analyses in this report focus on the variation in the outcomes of higher education across and within demographic groups, types of credentials, and institutional sectors. The distribution of earnings in Figure 2.3 tells a more nuanced story about the mid-career earnings of full-time workers with the same level of education. While 28% of employed adults with a bachelor’s degree working full time earn more than
8
$100,000, 17% earn less than $40,000. This disparity in earnings outcomes reflects, among other underlying factors, geographic differences in wages, variation in types of colleges attended, and differences in fields of study and occupations (Figures 2.8 through 2.10B). Although these nuances are important to our understanding of the circumstances under which educational investments pay off, the overall patterns are clear—more education is associated with increased opportunities for the vast majority of students.
This report also reveals earnings differentials among individuals with similar levels of education by race and gender. Underrepresented minorities continue to earn less than their white and Asian counterparts and females continue to earn less than their male counterparts (Figures 2.4 through 2.6). Though issues of equity exist in the workplace, postsecondary education remains a catalyst for social mobility. Figure 2.15A shows that a college education can be a powerful equalizer. When students attend similar postsecondary institutions, the percentage of students who end up in the top two income quintiles as adults is nearly the same for students from the lowest-income-quintile families as it is for those from top-incomequintile families. Although Figure 2.15B illustrates that affluent students are still considerably more likely to attend selective colleges than their less affluent peers, expanding access to selective colleges remains a promising avenue to economic mobility.
THE PUBLIC BENEFITS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Society at large also gains from increases in postsecondary attainment. A more productive economy generates a higher standard of living. We can all enjoy the benefits of having a more well-educated populace. Increases in wages generate higher tax payments at the local, state, and federal levels. In 2018, four-year college graduates paid, on average, 82% more in taxes than high school graduates and, for those with a professional degree, average tax payments were more than three times as high as those of high school graduates. Spending on social support programs such as unemployment compensation, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and Medicaid is much lower for individuals with higher levels of education. Figure 2.17 shows that SNAP participation among individuals with a high school diploma is four times as high as that among those with a bachelor’s degree or higher.
Education is associated with healthful behaviors and civic engagement. Over time, rates of smoking have dropped the most precipitously among college-educated adults (Figure 2.18A). Rates of reported exercise rise with educational attainment for individuals of all ages (Figure 2.19A). Adults with greater educational attainment are more likely to volunteer and to vote. In the 2016 presidential election, 73% of young adults age 25 to 44 with at least a bachelor’s degree voted, compared with 41% of their peers with a high school diploma (Figure 2.23A).
The data in Education Pays provide a strong argument for increasing access to and support for successful postsecondary pathways. Research suggests that increased public commitment to this priority through public subsidies for higher education institutions is the most promising approach to increasing degree completion and realizing greater private and public benefits (Deming & Walters, 2017; Avery, Howell, Pender, & Sacerdote, 2019).
IS COLLEGE WORTH IT?
A postsecondary education opens the door to many opportunities. As the price of college continues to rise, more students and families are asking if college is worth it. Media headlines highlight stories of college students saddled with debt without gainful employment. Although these stories do exist, they are far from typical. As illustrated in this report, college is a worthwhile investment that pays off over time for most students. Of course, students and families face crucial choices—which institution, which field of study, and how to finance it all—that factor into their eventual answer to the question, “Was college worth it?” Additional data and transparency about the costs and benefits of postsecondary education are needed to inform these choices.
Education Pays shows the variation in earnings by institutional sector based on the college-level earnings data from the Department of Education’s College Scorecard (Figures 2.10A and 2.10B). In 2019, the Department of Education expanded upon the college-level earnings data it began releasing in 2015. It provided program-level data for every college, including median debt data and median first-year earnings data. This is the first time such detailed data about labor market outcomes of students from specific majors and colleges have been made available at the national level. The earnings data include information for associate and bachelor’s degrees, certificate programs, and graduate degrees—a substantial step toward transparency around the monetary benefits of specific postsecondary investments. Continued progress in providing data on the benefits and costs of postsecondary investments at the institution and program levels will give students, families, institutions, and policymakers the information they need to quantitatively evaluate which postsecondary opportunities best serve individual and public educational goals.
9
College Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity
In 1998, 59% of black and 55% of Hispanic recent high school graduates enrolled in college within one year of high school graduation, compared with 68% of white students. In 2018, enrollment rates were 60%, 66%, and 70% for black, Hispanic, and white students, respectively.
FIGURE 1.1A Postsecondary Enrollment Rates of Recent High School Graduates by Race/Ethnicity, 1978 to 2018
80%
60% 50%
48% 47%
40%
Recent High School Graduates
Black
Hispanic
White
68% 59% 55%
70% 66% 60%
Enrollment Rate
20%
0% 1978
1983
1988
1993
1998
2003
2008
2013
2018
Enrollment rates of young adults between the
ages of 18 and 24 are lower than enrollment rates of all recent high school graduates.
In 1998, 29% of black and 21% of Hispanic young
adults between the ages of 18 and 24 were enrolled in college, compared with 40% of white young adults. In 2018, enrollment rates were 37% for black and Hispanic and 42% for white young adults.
ALSO IMPORTANT:
College enrollment rates are higher for Asians than
for other racial/ethnic groups. In 2018, 83% of Asians enrolled in college within a year of graduating from high school. (NCES, Digest of Education Statistics, 2019, Table 302.20; calculations by the authors)
Differences in high school graduation rates account
for some of the college enrollment gaps graphed in Figure 1.1B. In 2016-17, 89% of white, 78% of black, and 80% of Hispanic public high school students graduated from high school in four years. (NCES, Digest of Education Statistics, 2018, Table 219.47)
FIGURE 1.1B Postsecondary Enrollment Rates of All 18- to 24-Year-Olds by Race/Ethnicity, 1978 to 2018
All 18- to 24-Year-Olds
Black
Hispanic
White
80%
60%
Enrollment Rate
40%
27% 21% 20% 17%
40% 29%
21%
42% 37% 37%
0% 1978
1983
1988
1993
1998
2003
2008
2013
2018
NOTES: “Recent high school graduates” include those who graduated from high school in the previous 12 months. “All 18- to 24-year-olds” also include those who have not completed high school. “Postsecondary enrollment rates” are three-year moving averages and include both undergraduate and graduate students. Some 18- to 24-year-olds have completed college and are no longer enrolled. Because of small sample sizes for Hispanics and blacks, annual fluctuations in enrollment rates may not be significant.
SOURCES: National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Digest of Education Statistics, 2019, Tables 302.20 and 302.60; calculations by the authors.
10 EDUCATION PAYS 2019
Part 1: Distribution of Benefits